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Medical-Surgical Nursing
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=== Urinary Tract Infection and Pyelonephritis === Lower tract infection causes dysuria, frequency, urgency, and suprapubic discomfort. Upper tract infection adds flank pain, costovertebral angle tenderness, fever, and chills. In older adults, new confusion, incontinence, or falls may be the only presentation. Nursing application: prevention centers on hydration, complete bladder emptying, front-to-back perineal hygiene, and avoiding unnecessary indwelling catheters. When a catheter is required, maintain a closed system, keep the bag below bladder level and off the floor, and remove it at the earliest opportunity.
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